| Community Development and Network Construction among the Buddhist Monks in Contemporary Thailand |
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Community Development and Network Construction among the Buddhist Monks in Contemporary Thailand: A Case of “Community Development Monks’ Network in Northern Thailand” Mayumi OKABE The Graduate University for Advanced Studies, Japan
In recent years, we can see that there are so many Buddhist monks engaging themselves in improving a quality of lives of lay people all over Thailand. Some monks construct roads, dig wells, build rice banks or buffalo banks, join villagers’ meetings, visit patients at their home, and so on. Some monks build rehabilitation centers for drug addicts or terminal care hospices for AIDS patients within the temple’s compound, and instruct the way of meditation or provide counseling services to them. Such monks have been called as “phra nak phatthana1” or development monks for about 30 years in Thailand. A superficial image of “phra nak phatthana”, who are more interested in worldly affairs, aparts from an ideal image of Theravadan Buddhist monks, who are devoted themselves to ascetic practices towards an otherworldly purpose or enlightenment. This gap is one of the reasons why “phra nak phatthana” have kept attracting public notice. As the anthropological studies have clarified, however, the diversities of religious practices among both lay people and monks could not be completely understood only by the scriptural studies. Unlike some ideal images derived from Buddhist scriptures, the monks have not only provided non-Buddhist services such as herbal treatment, magic and astrology, but also played important roles in social matters such as arbitration of quarrels, naming infants, introducing jobs and so on, in order to meet the villagers’ expectations. From this viewpoint, the practices of “phra nak phatthana” might be also understood to follow as an extension of traditional practices of the monks. Well, why the monks engaging themselves in improving a quality of lives of lay people should be distinguished as “phra nak phattana” from the other ordinary monks? The decisive cause is closely related with historical backgrounds over community development in Thai society as it will be briefly referred in next section. In connection with such context, most of former arguments about “phra nak phatthana” are on the role of monks in community development from practical viewpoint. Still, if we listen to the narratives of so-called “phra nak phatthana”, we often encounter this kind of narratives as follows; “Buddhist monks can’t stay at temples if only eating and sleeping” or “Buddhist monks should repay for lay people, because monks can’t survive without lay peoples’ supports”. These narratives let us see that “phra nak phatthana” have high sense of purpose to overcome existing images towards the monks. Thus “phra nak phatthana” as a research topic raise not only the issues on the role of monks in community development as NGO workers or intellectuals have emphasized, but also the issues on identity politics of monks under rapid social changes. Interestingly, it seems there has been a new trend among “phra nak phatthana” that they have started to construct “network2”s among them. That is, the monks not only engage themselves in improving a quality of lives of the lay people in a local community around temple, but also hold meetings and seminars to exchange their opinions on community development works each other. Such trend indicates that “phra nak phatthana” have tried to construct new relatedness among the monks who share similar interests in community development. This paper aims to consider how have the Buddhist monks, so-called “phra nak phatthana”, constructed a new relatedness among them for recent years in Thai society. The case that will be examined here is “Community Development Monks’ Network in Northern Thailand (khru’akhai phra nak phatthana chumchon phak nu’a)”. This “network” was founded in 20013. The following two points are to be considered in detail, namely, (1) when and how has this “network” been constructed among the monks in northern Thailand, (2) what did this “network” bring to the monks joining its activities. Through consideration of these two points, this paper explores a fragment of the monks’ practices under rapid social changes in contemporary Thailand.
In this section, this paper examines a historical background for community development works of the monks today. The background can be divided into three parts as following. 2-1. Various Programs for the Monks since the mid of 1960’s In Thailand, community development has been firstly implemented by Thai government within national social and economic development five-year plan since 1961. Although the government’s development policy stressed on economic growth and infrastructure construction throughout the country, the government also expected the Sangha’s cooperation with it to accomplish the development policy smoothly. Specifically a few programs were launched to let the monks involve in community development in practice since the middle of 1960’s. Firstly “Khrongkan Thammathut” was drawn up by Department of Religious Affairs, Ministry of Education in 1965. The purpose of this program is to train the monks to engage in community development. A lot of monks were collected to join this program from all over the country. After they took a training course in Bangkok, they were assigned to settle in each temple to engage in development works in rural area, especially in north-east region. Secondarily “Khrongkan Thammacarik” was drawn up by Department of Public Welfare, Ministry of Interior in 1965. The purpose of this program is to send the monks to each village in Northern region to propagate Buddhist teaching to non-Buddhist hill tribe people. In addition to these nationwide programs led under the close relationship between the government and the Sangha, a lot of programs at regional levels have been started by each temple and monk to let the monks engage themselves in community development works. For example “Khrongkan Thamma Phatthana” was started at Wat Cedi Luang in Chiang Mai city, to let the monks learn knowledge on community development, public health, agriculture, crafts, and so on. And also some other programs were started under the support by two Buddhist Universities; Mahaculalongkorn Buddhist University and Mahamakut Buddhist University, since 1966. These programs of both national and regional levels provided the monks with opportunities to learn and practice of community development works in local villages. 2-2. Discourses over Alternative Development As alternative development led by NGOs has become prosperous since around 1980’s, NGO workers and intellectuals on development studies has started to pay high attentions on community development works of the monks to solve the social problems, especially poverty among farmers. They recognize that the monks’ activities based on Buddhist Dhamma have distinguishing features from the government’s development policy, which stresses on economic growth. In this context, the monks engaging themselves in community development started to be called as “phra nak phatthana” by NGO and the intellectuals. Therefore, from the start, “phra nak phatthana”is expected to play much role in community development from practical viewpoint. 2-3. Discussion of “Buddhism in Crisis” As modernization in Thai society proceeds since the beginning of 20th century, the Sangha results to feel that it gradually loses its role in the society. Also individual monks encounter identity crisis at some degree. Then some monks, most of them are highly learned or elite monks, publicly started raising questions on current situation of Buddhism in changing Thai society since around 1990’s. At last a seminar titled “Wikkhlit Phutthasatsana (Buddhism in Crisis)” was held on 1998 at Princes Maha Chakri Sirindhorn Anthropology Center, Bangkok [Sun Manutsayawitthaya Sirinthorn 1999]. In fact, although the numbers of the monks joining this discussion were limited, this discussion served to raise much awareness concerning the role of monks and the future of Buddhism among both of the monks and lay people. These backgrounds around Buddhism as described above, have not only increased the opportunities for the monks to start being involved in community development works, but also advocated the necessity of monks to take part in society to the public so much. 3. The Focus of This Paper 3-1. Buddhist Social Works As for Buddhist social works or the monks engaging themselves in improving a quality of lives of the lay people in contemporary Thailand, there are roughly two lines of former studies. One, such as political science and sociology, focuses on the close relationship between Thai government and the Sangha in community development and analyze it from macro viewpoint in relation to a political and economical transformation [Somboon 1977; 1988, Phinit 1987, Nonset and Sak 1991 etc.]. The other, such as development studies focuses on community development works of the monks and discusses the possibilities of the monks’ role in alternative development from idealistic viewpoint [Prawet 1988, Seri 1988; 1996 etc.]. However, most of these former studies are lack of any micro viewpoint to focus on the monks’ practices in detail. Consequently the community development works are focused, but not the monks’ practices. Furthermore even anthropological studies, which have paid much attention to religious practices among both the monks and lay people, have showed little interest in the ones of “phra nak patthana”4. As it is mentioned in introduction, “phra nak patthana” shows an important new trend of the monks’ practices, which should be considered as a research topic. 3-2. “Network” among the monks It is a “network” construction that has been overlooked to discuss as a research topic by former studies. Besides “Community Development Monks’ Network in Northern Thailand”, a case of this paper, some other cases of “network” construction also can be found among “phra nak phatthana”5. How should we approach such a new trend among the monks in recent years? Here, this paper will begin with Tambiah’s study. After he analyzed relationship between religious practice and social structure within a local village in north-east Thailand, Tambiah tried to analyze the relationship between religion and polity in modernized state [Tambiah 1970; 1976]. In this book he also referred to a network of the monks to explain their high mobility from one temple to another temple, with special quotation from a classic article of Wyatt [Tambiah 1976, Wyatt 1966]. As following the Wyatt’s point of argument, Tambiah indicates that high mobility among the monks from rural area to urban area is caused not only because of seeking for better educational environment, but also because of expanding their connections to improve their social status after disrobing. Moreover in line with his argument, Tambiah points out that a vertical relationship such as master-disciple (luksit-acan) is quite important for the individual monks. When a monk moves to and settles in a temple, he may depend upon a senior monk from the same village. On the other hand, a horizontal relationship such as associates of ordination is not so important for the monks, and is described as fragile relationship [Tambiah 1976]. Tmabiah’s such arguments should be highly appreciated since it firstly describes the relationships among the monks from an ethnographical approach, and points out the importance of a vertical relationship for them. However, if we carefully observe the practices of the monks in recent years, we’ll find that so-called “phra nak phatthana” shows the converse of Tambiah’s points. That is, they are actively trying to construct a horizontal relationship among them against Tambiah’s indication. Through examining the case of “Community Development Monks’ Network in Northern Thailand”, this paper sheds light on this new trend of the monks’ practices, or how have they constructed a new relatedness among them in Thai society, especially under rapid social changes led by development. 4. “Network” Construction Process among the Monks: a Case of “Community Development Monks’ Network in Northern Thailand” In this section, we’ll focus on “Community Development Monks’ Network in Northern Thailand”. Taking a case of the monk Z6 who made special efforts to build this “network” up, his life history will be described with the surroundings around him. After that, this paper will explore a construction process of this “network” and its activities. The data that will be examined here is based on the author’s fieldwork7 in both of Chiang Mai city and its suburbs for about 18 months (during October 2004 - May 2006). In the city, the research was mainly conducted to collect some elementary data on “Community Development Monks’ Network in Northern Thailand” at the office of “Phothiyalai Institute (Sathaban Phothiyalai)” located in the compound of Wat Suan Dok. Some of the data collected there are printed documents, and the others are oral recordings. Meanwhile in the suburbs, the temple D (Wat D), at where the monk Z has dwelled for long time, and CD village around Wat D are taken as research site to survey a relationship between a temple and local community through participant-observation. Both of Wat D and CD village are located in Doi Saket district. 4-1. A Life history of the monk Z and its surroundings Doi Saket is one of the suburban districts around Chiang Mai valley, and it is about 20km far from the center of Chiang Mai city. This area, including CD village, was firstly opened up by Tai Lue people, who were taken to the Lanna kingdom from Sipsong Panna around 19th century. After that they moved to look for undeveloped land all over the norhtern Thailand. CD village is located on the very trading route, linking Chiang Mai and Sipsong Panna by way of Chiang Rai. Therefore a trading market has been built up in CD village, and it seemed like even a post town since the past. Some time later, Tai Yuan (khon muang) and Chinese people migrated into CD village for the purpose of pursuing business chances at the market. Nowadays the ethnic majority of CD village is Tai Yuan people, and almost of them take up non-agricultural occupations such as day labor, vendor, shopkeeper, and public service employee. CD village has its population about 1,682 in total. Wat D is the only Buddhist temple in CD village. But then any historical materials have been found yet which indicates when and by whom Wat D was built. Now Wat D is, however, ranked as the top of Doi Saket district Sangha hierarchy. Because Wat D has the biggest population of monks and novices in this district, and also the abbot of Wat D performs the role of the head of district Sangha (chao khana amphoe). On July 2005, before entering the Buddhist Lent (khao phansa), there were about 27 bikkhus (phiksu) at this temple. Almost all the bikkhus, including present abbot, come from other villages, districts or provinces. The monk Z, 38 years old as of 2009, has dwelled at Wat D. He is a Shan (Tai Yai) monk, born in Shan State of Myanmar, and moved to settle in Wiang Haeng district, Chiang Mai province with his family since his childhood. He is from a farmer’s family, and has one elder brother. The purpose of his ordination was to pursue an educational opportunity at a local and small temple, and then moved to a bigger temple in the downtown of Wiang Haeng. When he was 13 years old, he decided to move to Wat D, at where the monk Y had performed the role of the abbot, through an introduction of his relative. While the monk Z has dwelled at Wat D, he entered Mahaculalongkorn Buddhist University, Chiang Mai campus and finally got a bachelor degree. 4-2. Succeeded thought “Work for society” The monk Y has been the abbot of Wat D for around 30 years since 1980. He was born in Nan province in 1945, and he was ordained as a novice and a monk there. For pursuing better educational environment, he moved to Wat Buppharam in the center of Chiang Mai city. When the monk Y moved to Wat Buppharam, it was the monk X who performed the role of the abbot of Wat Buppharam. The monk X was born in Mae Hong Son province in 1925, and was ordained as a novice there, and then moved to Wat Chetuwan, Wat Cheng Man where he was ordained as a phiksu, and Wat Buppharam. Whereas he became the abbot of Wat Buppharam in 1960, he has consistently performed a lot of other responsible positions within Chiang Mai provincial Sangha, such as secretary of the head of Chiang Mai provincial Sangha, the acting abbot of Wat D in Doi Saket district and the head of Doi Saket district Sangha, the assistant head of Chiang Mai provincial Sangha, and finally the 10th head of Chiang Mai provincial Sangha up to now. While the monk Y had been at Wat Buppharam for around 15 years, the monk X often taught a thought to his disciples that Buddhist monks should work for a society. In fact, the monk X himself organized a lot of welfare activities for the poor all over Chiang Mai province, mostly in Doi Saket district. While the monk X performed the role of the acting abbot of Wat D since 1976, he carried out kinds of activities to improve a quality of lives of the lay people around Doi Saket district, such as education, residence, agriculture, and vocation etc. After the monk Y became the abbot of Wat D in 1981, he also started to engage himself in community development works around Wat D. The monk Y recalled the beginning days that there were just a few of poor kuti (hurmit) in deep woods at Wat D, and it swarmed with numberless mosquitoes too. In such situation, the task expected for the monk Y was to develop the temple itself and the community around it. Firstly the monk Y began to set in place the infrastructure within Wat D, such as equipping a big water tank, constructing two roads of concrete up to Wat D, renovating a lot of kuti, and building school for novices. Next he worked on behalf of the lay people especially living around Wat D such as raising a fund for low-income families, visiting homes of HIV/AIDS patients, and so on. HIV pandemic occurred to the city and the suburbs of Chiang Mai since late 1980s. Doi Saket is one of the most serious areas where were seriously hit by HIV pandemic around Chiang Mai city. The monk Y rose up against such situation to provide material and spiritual aid to the HIV positives and AIDS patients, and their family members who were suffered from social discrimination. Then the monk Y started to visit their homes, let their self-help group use a part of Wat D’s land, and help their funerals not to receive any donation from a chief mourner, and so on. As a result of these sustained works, the monk Y was highly appreciated from other monks and lay people. He was finally appointed the head of Doi Saket district Sangha on 1990, and Wat D was selected as a “model temple for development” (wat phatthana tua yang) by the department of religious affairs on 2000. However, after his appointment as the head of district Sangha, he got buisier with administrative affairs within the Sangha. Since the monk Z served like an assistant for community development works of the monk Y, he succeeded “works for society (ngan phu’a sangkhom)” of the monk Y. In fact, although he was just one of 27 monks who dwelled at Wat D at that time, it was the monk Z’s personal interest in community development that let him to engage himself especially in this sphere. Nowadays the monk Z works so hard on health care and welfare for lay people in the community around Wat D. For example, since 1996 he joins the “AIDS committee of CD sub-district” (kammakan dulae sukkhaphap tambon CD, and reconstituted as Health care committee of CD sub-district on 2001) as a committee member. The monk Z takes an energetic part more than just an ostensible member in this committee, which consists of the doctor and nurses from the district hospital, staffs from TAO (Tambon Administrative Organization) and municipality, health volunteers, local leaders (district headmen and village headmen) and the monks. Thus there is a difference between the monk Y and the monk Z in style of community development works. Still here we can find a continuous succession of the thought that Buddhist monks should work for a society from senior to junior monk within a temple. 4-3. A Construction Process of “network” As the monk Z eagerly grappled with community-based health care activities around Wat D, he gained the opportunities to be invited to participate the seminars or meetings on HIV/AIDS promoted by NGOs in Chiang Mai city and Bangkok. At one seminar held in Chiang Mai city, the monk Z encountered an unexpected question from a lay participant; “Where are the monks working on the HIV/AIDS issue?” and “Although we all have rose up against this issue, we can’t find where, how many, and what kind of activities are the Buddhist monks engaged in.” At that seminar, there was no monk but the monk Z, so he managed to answer this question with his best. This experience became quite meaningful to the monk Z, because he strongly recognized that he lacked any means to link the monks working on the HIV/AIDS issue and exchange information on their works each other. After that, firstly the monk Z started to make contacts with familiar monks who had worked on HIV/AIDS care activities around Chiang Mai city, and let them introduce other monks to him in order to get acquainted with them. As the monk Z made contacts with many monks, the circle of those monks expanded step by step in both of the areas and topics. The monk Z gathered both those monks and some lay people to hold twice meetings at Wat D on 1999 to discuss various aspects of their community development works. Furthermore he and other monks came together at Wat Huai So in Nan province to have a meeting to introduce themselves each other, and to exchange their opinions on community development works. About 150 monks participated that meeting, and they confirmed that they would found a network of these monks in near future. Moreover they organized a small committee at Wat Suan Dok on April 2000. They held a meeting at Wat D with more than 100 monks participants from all the parts of Northern Thailand, and finally founded “Community Development Monks’ Network in Northern Thailand” on March 2001. 4-4. Purpose and the organization Since the beginning “Community Development Monks’ Network in Northern Thailand” held up an ideal to develop the abilities of the monks engaging themselves in community development works, and set its purposes up as listed below; 1) To improve the abilities of the development monks and the monks engaging in social development activities in northern Thailand 2) To support and encourage the development activities by individual monks, groups of monks and local organizations 3) To urge the monks in important posts within Sangha, other institutions, and lay people to have better understandings of community development activities of the monks 4) To advocate new directions and models for development based on Buddhist Dhamma This “network” has no firm membership but a committee, which consists of representative, deputy representative, secretary, and coordinator. Therefore it is difficult to reckon the numbers of monks who join this “network” accurately. Every time the committee plans a meeting or event, it’s difficult to specify the number of the other monks joining it. Meanwhile the office works of this “network” has been carried out by Phothiyalai Institute (Sathaban Phothiyalai), such as making contacts to the monks, arrangement for their transportation, paper works, and so on. This institute set its office up contiguous to Mahaculalongkorn Buddhist University, Chiang Mai campus within the compound of Wat Suan Dok. It is Phra Maha Bunchuai that serves as the head of Phothiyalai Institute, and also a vice-principal of Mahaculalongkorn Buddhist University, Chiang Mai campus. There were approximately 10 staffs, both monks and lay people, working at the institute’s office. When the committee sets small meetings of the network, they often hold them at the institute’s office or an open space of Mahacula’s campus. That is, the network has close relationship with the both of them. 4-5. Activities The main activities of “Community Development Monks’ Network in Northern Thailand” are to hold meetings or seminars, and then to make reports and exchange their information of community development works of the monks each other. Even more they sometimes visit the monks who join the activities of this “network” to give some encouragements on their community development works each other. Sometimes this “network” holds a small meeting among only the committee monks or leading monks within the “network”. It sets some topics for discussion on a course of action of the “network” hereafter. Still the Phothiyalai Institute regularly publishes a magazine “Culasan Phothiyalai” to propagate their activities to the public. This magazine sometimes prepares a special feature on “phra nak phatthana” around northern Thailand so that it carries interview articles to introduce the members of “Community Development Monks’ Network in Northern Thailand” and their activities at each temple and community. Accordingly this magazine has a role as a public relations magazine of this network itself. Let’s take a glance of a scene of the meeting held at Wat Arannyawat, Nan province on August 25-26th, 2005. The participants were about 40 monks from all over northern Thailand and 7 lay people from Phothiyalai Institute, It was Phra Phithaknanthakhun, the abbot of Wat Arannyawat, who served the host of this meeting. He is highly famous for his earnest forest conservation activities such as “ordination of tree” (buat ton mai) etc8. Therefore some participants who were highly interested in Phra Phithak’s activities tried to make a contact with Phra Phithak himself, and visit the office of Phra Phithak within that temple. On the first day, the meeting was opened with Phra Phithak’s remarks, and then Phra Maha Bunchuai, the head of the “network”, started to explain the aims of this meeting. According to his explanation, this meeting was regarded as a meeting, which marked the 5th year of the “network”. So this “network” should look at itself thoroughly again. Until that time the “network” seemed to have countless activities carried out by individual monks under the wide mesh named as a “network”. However for the future, the “network” will let the monks joining it coordinate to set up the zones as follows the areas and activate the activities of each topic (HIV/AIDS, environment, the young or the aged, saving association etc.) within such zones. Most of the participants were in full agreement with the proposal of Phra Maha Bunchuai as mentioned above. Then they divided whole the northern Thailand into 6 zones, and picked the leaders for each zone up. After that, 7 monks made the presentations on their each community development work (see Figure.1). Figure 1: A Meeting of “Community Development Monks’ Network in Northern Thailand” at Wat Arannyawat, Nan
Source: Author (took at Wat Arannyawat, on August 25, 2005) On the second day, they confirmed the contents of the first day’s discussion at the beginning, and then started frank and informal discussion on community development works of the monks. Some senior monks, such as Phra Anek and Phra Samuwichian from Chiang Mai, gave a few statements on the difficulties that they encountered in their works since before, and they showed their own opinions to overcome these difficulties. For instance, they showed a basic stance for their works; “The monks, as we ordained, have been dependent upon lay people for housing, food, and clothing. So the monks should repay to them. Their hardships, which occur from a lack of “samakkhi (solidarity)”, are also ones of the monks.” A lot of monks seemed to be of the same opinion with this basic stance, and to share the thought “The monks should be engaged themselves in solving problems of ‘chumchon’ (community)”. 5. Summary: Horizontal relationship among the monks As this paper examines the case of “Community Development Monks’ Network in Northern Thailand” in the former section, the monks set numberless opportunities to discuss their community development works through the activities of this “network”. It is considered that the aim of these discussions is to exchange information on concrete and discrete aspects of their each activity, and also to share the similar interests and experiences on community development works. Here, while returning to our main two points as showed in the introduction, this paper will explore how have the Buddhist monks, so-called “phra nak phatthana” constructed a new relatedness among them in contemporary Thai society. Firstly, (1) when and how has this network been constructed among the monks in northern Thailand; it can be clarified with a series of events among the monks in northern Thailand which arose from the individual experience of the monk Z. The monk Z has succeeded the thought “The monks should work for a society” from the senior monks, or the monk Y and X. Here we can find an importance of vertical relationship also among the monks so-called “phra nak phatthana” as Tambiah points out before. However, as the life history of monk Z shows, his personal experience moved himself to construct a “network” among the monks in northern Thailand. He joined a seminar on HIV/AIDS held by NGOs in Chiang Mai and encountered some sharp questions from lay participants to let him recognize an absence of the information on community development works of other monks and of the way to contact with them each other. With this as a turning point, he went into action to let the acquainted monks introduce other monks, and let them introduce the other monks furthermore. After a while, a link of the monks expanded from a circle of acquainted monks working on HIV/AIDS around Chiang Mai city area to the monks engaging themselves in community development works all over northern Thailand. In this process they came together to exchange information on their works and discuss the difficulties of their works. They finally managed to construct this “network” on 2001. Secondly, (2) what did this “network” bring to the monks; it can be understood from taking its activities into consideration. Almost only activity of this “network” is to hold meetings or seminars as the opportunities for the monks to exchange the information and opinions on community development works. Moreover they sometimes arrange an observation tour of each monk’s activities for encouragement. These activities let the monks get not only concrete and discrete knowledge on community development and on the monks working actively in this sphere, but also join general and abstract arguments on the role of monks in a changing society. Thus the monks joining this “network” have not only engaged themselves individually in community development works which are embedded in each local context of temple and community, but also started to build a new relatedness among the monks who can share similar interests in community development. This relatedness can be analyzed as a horizontal relationship among “phra nak phatthana” in contrast to a vertical relationship between the monks as Tambiah emphasized its importance before. Finally, although there is not sufficient space to argue them in detail, some questions arises; what does such a construction of horizontal relationship between the monks who shares similar interests mean in contemporary Thai society? How are the monks creating their practices between a horizontal relationship and a vertical relationship today? These research topics, arising from a consideration of “network” construction as this paper tried, will be clarified to approach new socio-religious practices in contemporary Thailand under rapid changes. . References (In Thai) Ciranut Wonguthai.1993 Botbat Phrasong nai Kan Songkhro Chumchon Panha Rok AIDS: Koroni Su’ksa Phrakhru Sophonpariyattisuthi Wat D Chiang Mai, Master Thesis, Faculty of Public Health, Chiang Mai University. Nonseet Phisitphanphon and Sak Prasandi (eds.)1991 Thamniap Phrasong Nak Phatthana Phak Isan, Bangkok: Sathaban Wicai lae Phatthana, Mahawitthayalai Khon Kaen lae Sathaban Wicai Phutthasat Mahaculalonkorn Ratchawitthayalai. Phinit Laptananon.1987 Botbat Phrasong nai Kan Phatthana Chonnabot, Bangkok: Culalongkorn University Social Research Institute. Prawet Wasi.1988 “Sasontham kap Kan Phatthana Muban”, in Seri Phongphit (ed.) Thitthang Muban Thai, Bangkok: Samnakphim Muban Thai. Seri Phongphit.1996 23 Prasopkan Kan Thamngan Kiaokap Rok AIDS Phak Nu’a khong Thai, Bangkok: Krasuang Satharanasuk. Sun Manutsayawitthaya Sirindhorn. 1998 Wikkhlit Phutthasatsana, Bangkok; Sun Manutsayawitthaya Sirindhorn. Thewan Ekachan. 2005 Phrasong kap Kan Phatthana Chumchon: Phrathep Wisutthikhun (Kuson Khonthawaro), Chiang Mai: Natthaphan Pringting. (In English) Darlington, Suzan M. 1990 Buddhism, Morality, and Change: the Local Response to Development in Northern Thailand, Ph.D. dissertation, University of Michigan, UMI. 2003 “Buddhism and Development: The Ecology Monks of Thailand”, in Queen, Christopher S. et. al. (eds.), Action Dharma: New Studies in Engaged Buddhism, London: Routledge Curzon, pp96-109. Phraya Anuman Rajadhon. 1961 “General System of Phonetic Transcription of Thai Characters into Roman.” in The Nature and Development of the Thai Language (Thailand Culture Series no.10), Bangkok: Fine Arts Department, National Culture Institute, pp32-35. Seri Phongphit. 1988 Religion in a Changing Society: Buddhism, Reform, and the Role of Monks in Community Development in Thailand, Hong Kong: Arena Press. Somboon Suksamran. 1977 Political Buddhism in Southeast Asia: the Role of the Sangha in the Modernization of Thailand, New York: St.Martin’s Press. 1988 “A Buddhist Approach to Development: The Case of ‘Development Monks’ in Thailand”, in Lim Teck Ghee (ed.) Reflections on Development in Southeast Asia, Singapore: Institute of Southeast Asian Studies, pp.26-48. Tambiah, Stanley J. 1970 Buddhism and Spirit Cults in North-east Thailand, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 1976 World Conqueror World Renouncer: A Study of Buddhism and Polity in Thailand against Historical Background, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Wyatt, David K. 1966 “The Buddhist Monkhood as an Avenue of Social Mobility in Traditional Thai Society”, Sinlapakorn 10(1): 41-52.
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